, that is a longer period of functioning in time. So, for example, if the time of functioning of a Mu- meson equals only 2ž10-6 sec. (two millionth parts of a second), then the time of existence of neutrons and protons is much longer.

Nowadays more than 200 appellations of fng. units, circulating in sublevels A - B, are known.

Level C

More than one hundred atomic elements of the periodical system of Mendeleev constitute systemic formations of the sublevel C. The functional features of these units have been studied more deeply than the characteristics of the units of sublevels A - B. Their inner structure by now is also very well-known.

   The structural difference between them comes down to the number of protons, neutrons, mesons and electrons, entering them, but every next addition of a couple proton-electron to a system abruptly changes the functional characteristics of the whole combined unit entirely and this serves as an obvious confirmation of the regulation of the number of fnl. cells in every given system.
   The field of spatial spreading of units of the level C is (as well as for units of sub levels A - B) the whole field of the Universe visible by us.
   The principal mass of any unit of the present level - atom - more than for 99,9% is concentrated in its nucleus, the dimensions of which is 10-13 cm, that is 105 times less the dimensions of the atom itself (10-8 cm). So, if to imagine the dimensions of an atom in the form of a football field (with the diameter 100 m), then the atomic nucleus would correspond to a pellet with the diameter only 1 mm. Nuclei have complicated structure of fnl. cells. The principal elements filling them in as fng. units are the nuclear particles of the sublevel B - nucleons: protons and neutrons. Their masses of rest are equal accordingly to 1,00812 and 1,00893 of ideal units. The mass of electrons forming part of any atom is almost 2000 times less (5.5ž10-6 i.u.) the mass of nucleons. The particles intermediate by mass between electrons and protons and forming part of nucleus - Mu- and Pi- mesons - have bigger masses than electron in 210 and 275 times accordingly.
   The formation of stable and compact atomic nucleus from nucleons - protons and neutrons - can be explained by the arising of nuclear power, nuclear links between them, and mesons are responsible for that. Nucleons are exchanging between themselves with mesons turning in turn into now proton, now neutron, while a proton can form links with a limited number of neutrons, and vice versa, a neutron gets links with a definite number of protons. Therefore the stability of nuclei depends on a number of protons and neutrons that are filling in the fnl. cells of a structure of a nucleus.
   The number of protons defines the magnitude of the positive charge of a nucleus, and that is the most important characteristic of an atom, as the number of electrons in an electroneutral atom and finally functional features of every atom depend on it.
   The mass of a nucleus ('the mass number of an atom' - A), being a sum of masses of all protons and neutrons forming part of a nucleus, is practically equal to the mass of the whole atom.
   Nuclei, having the same number of protons, can have a different number of neutrons, that is to be isotopes. Almost all chemical elements have several isotopes. The elements, having charge of the nucleus from 40 to 56, that are located in the middle of the periodical system, have the most numerous isotopes (per 6-10 each). The number of lasting (stable) isotopes is considerably less than the number of unstable, that is radio-active ones. The stability of nuclei depends on the number of protons and neutrons, forming them as fng. units, and on their ratio. In structures of fnl. cells of maximum stable nuclei of light elements there is one neutron per each proton. With the growth of the charge of the nucleus the increase of the number of neutronic fnl. cells outstrips the increase of the number of protonic ones. In nuclei with A < 25 every nucleon is being dragged up by nuclear forces to all the rest nucleons, in nuclei with á = 25 - 30 the nuclear forces begin to be sated (that is every nucleon is being dragged up not by all the rest nucleons, but only by those that closely surround it). In nuclei with á > 50 the force of electrical repulsion between protons more and more noticeably counteracts to forces of nuclear link. Any two protons, being located in diametrically opposite sides of a big nucleus, continue to interact electrically while for nuclear interaction they are located already too far one from another. On the contrary, in the lightest nuclei all nucleons are located so near one from another that the effect of the force of repulsion is fully neutralised by nuclear attraction. It is natural that the force of repulsion as a functional characteristic of the present structure is striving to destroy large atomic nuclei contrary to the restraining influence of the functional characteristic of nuclear attraction, and therefore the magnitude of forces of the connection of such a nucleus would depend on a ratio between these two forces. This balance of some very heavy nuclei is quite unsteady; such nuclei become unstable and strive to a spontaneous desintegration, that is are radio-active. This happens mainly when there is shortage or excess of neutrons in a nucleus. Depending on the kind of particles emitted by a nucleus one can distinguish several types of radio-active desintegration: protonic, positronic, electronic, etc.
   Massive positively charged nuclei of atoms create around themselves a powerful electromagnetic field, in which in fnl. cells of atomic orbitals in a definite way electrons are placed. The number of electrons in an atom (equal to the charge of its nucleus) as well as their location in space, determine all chemical, and consequently, functional features of each element. Therefore any change of the fnl. characteristics of any substance as well as the transformation of some substances into others are linked with the change of internal structure of fnl. cells of their atoms, with number and composition of filling them in fng. units of lower sublevels.
   The planetary model of composition of an atom, which existed until recent time, could not explain not only all the variety of functional (chemical) characteristics of different atoms, but even the thin structure of spectrums of radiation. Therefore nowadays the model of atom gains a firm hold more and more, which consists of a nucleus, enveloped by closed stagnant waves of electrons, forming 'an electronic cloud', in which the movement of electrons along definite trajectories is impossible to imagine, as for example the movement of planets around a star. Hence there is always uncertainty in the position of electrons, in determination of their location.
   The dual nature (dualism) of electron, having characteristics of both a particle and a wave, leads to the fact that its movement cannot be described by a definite trajectory. A trajectory is being 'washed away', a strip of uncertainty appears, within the bounds of which the electron is located. At any moment of time it is impossible to define both the position in space and the velocity (or impulse) of the electron. The movement of the electron is described with the help of a wave function, being a function of spatial coordinates. The wave function should be synonymous, final and continuous in space. It is equal to zero in places where the electron cannot be located. As a result of the calculation of a wave function we get volumetric figures - 'electronic clouds', that have the name of atomic orbitals. They are described by three constant whole numbers - quantum numbers. Their meanings indicate the probable location of an electron in an atom.
   The 'main quantum number' determines the most probable distance of an electron from the nucleus of an atom, that is an average radius of electronic layer (orbit). The 'azimuth quantum number' determines the moment of quantity of movement of an electron and characterises electronic sublayers (sublevels of energy), forming every layer. The 'magnetic quantum number' determines the orientation of every sublayer in space that cannot be arbitrary.
   So then, electrons in every atom are located in layers, layers are divided into sublayers, every sublayer consists of oriented in space fields - atomic orbitals, in the fnl. cells of which the probability of being of electron is the topmost. The position of an electron in an atom depends also on its own moment of quantity of movement, which is appearing as if because of 'rotation' of the electron around its axis. At the same time, an electron, having some electrical charge, reveals its own magnetic moment, characterised with the spin quantum number. Due to the fact that the rotation of an electron can be going in two mutually opposite directions, maximum two fng. units - electrons can fill in the couple of fnl. cells of each atomic orbital, moreover both of them should have opposite (antiparallel) spins.
   Since the whole energy of an electron is its principal characteristic, which is taken into account by the wave equation, its magnitude defines the probability of being of an electron in a fnl. cell of this or that atomic orbital. The levels of energy of an electron cannot be arbitrary as they should be a multiple of Planck's constant. It is known that during transition from an upper allowed level to a lower one (closer to the nucleus), an electron frees itself from a surplus of energy emitting it in the form of electromagnetic waves. In the case of absorption by an electron of energy an opposite process is going on - the atom is being excited. In an unexcited atom the electrons have minimum energy and consequently are situated in fnl. cells of atomic orbital, that are located 'closer' to the nucleus. Precisely speaking, the electron occupies the functional cell of that atomic orbital, the staying in which allows it for the most part to be situated near the nucleus of the atom.
   It is natural to suppose that electrons participating in the formation of an electronic cover of an atom, are composing themselves first of all in fnl. cells of atomic orbitals, characterised by the smallest energies, and after filling them in, on more and more upper levels, that is the order of formation of electronic cover of an atom, the order of its development together with the growth of charge of the nucleus and corresponding increase of the number of electrons coincides with the sequence of location of atomic orbitals according their energies.
   We have stopped on the description of structures of systemic formations of the level C in detail for several reasons.
   Firstly, on the basis of additional knowledge obtained by scientists during recent years as a result of experiments at powerful accelerators of particles, our ideas about the construction of the atom are undergoing bigger and bigger changes, and the model of its structure becomes more and more complicated.
   Secondly, the knowledge of the construction of atoms is essential in order to understand the genuine picture of the formation of the material Universe, because this organisational sublevel nowadays is primary, since in its construction the peculiarities of the evolution of lower for us sublevels of Matter are revealed, its variations define functional interactions of material structures of higher levels.
   Thirdly, the fine structure of the construction of the atom and its components should demonstrate that material units are not spontaneously developed formations. All of them, even at a so relatively low organisational level, represent systemic formations of Matter created in accordance with the strictly definite laws from functioning units of lower sublevels, bearing corresponding functional load, the character of which would be more clear on considering the construction of systems of the next levels in the general line of the organisational evolution of the material substance.
   Thus, the complex elements of the sublevel C - atoms - according to their construction allow one to set out in the order of growth of the charges of their nuclei. Precisely this was actualised by D.I. Mendeleev in 1869 and as a result of that a rather methodical periodical system of elements appeared bearing his name. Since the charge of a nucleus defines the number of electrons, then atoms of every following element have one electron more, than the atoms of the previous one.
   The most widespread element of the Universe is hydrogen. About half of the mass of the Sun and most of other stars falls on its part. Gas nebulas, interstellar gas contain it. It is forming stars. In depths of stars the transformation of the nuclei of atoms of hydrogen into the nuclei of atoms of helium is going on while elements of sublevels A and AA are being radiated, afterwards filling fnl. cells in different systemic formations of the Universe.
   There is no cause to turn down a supposition that the motion of Matter in quality () during the definite historical period (-t) was going on in the Universe exactly along the lines of construction of the structural formations of atoms (that is along the sublevel C) from the simplest elements - hydrogen, helium - to the more and more complicated. How long this period was lasting () and how far newly formed elements have spread in space (), it is impossible to say precisely for the time being, but right now it is possible to make a few certain deductions.
   Firstly, the process of the formation of elements of the level C - atoms - was going on with the absorption of considerable quantities of kinetic energy, its systemic binding in structures of units of the new level, transferring it into hypothetical power potential. Bearing in mind that the total quantity of energy for the whole aggregate Matter is a constant magnitude, during the increase of the number of heterofunctional atomic elements and the further integration of their structures, the item of the kinetic energy was decreasing more and more, which resulted in the appearance in the Universe of peculiar condensations of material formations - stars, alternating with relatively boundless spaces practically free of energy. In other words, as a result of the integrative process of systemic organisation within the limits of the level C during the above stated phase of the Evolution of Matter, the energy along the whole length of space-time of the Universe was grouped into relative concentrations - galaxies and spots - stars, although the dimensions of those concentrations and spots, expressed in the metric system, have rather impressive magnitudes.
   Secondly, by the same reason leading to the lowering of the numerator in the formula the velocity of the spreading of every material formation of subsequent organisational levels is also decreasing at the end striving to zero.
   Thirdly, in the process of the motion of Matter in quality along the level C, started, as we have already said, from the formation of hydrogen and helium, more than 100 types of structures of different elements were assembled. The appearance of more cumbersome atoms than uranium and plutonium is made difficult owing to the exceeding of forces of repulsion of protons in their nuclei over forces of nuclear link. As a result in such atoms a desintegration to elements with more steady nuclear structures is taking place. Because of this any further motion of Matter in quality along the level C became impossible and it got over to the level D, to the examination of which we shall pass herein after. However, before that we shall make some remarks that are very important for our study.
   All the particles of sublevels A, AA, AB, B and C, examined by us, form a group of functioning units, which serves as a foundation for the evolution of all further systemic formations of Matter. The total number of said elements exceeds 300, however, each combination constitutes a new variant of the systemic organisation on the given level and leads to a creation of a new functioning unit with strictly definite characteristics. Without knowledge of the regularities of the formation of these units and the distinguishing peculiarities of the alteration of their functional features it is impossible to cognize the whole picture of the Evolution of Matter. We also should remember that for all units and systemic formations of levels A - C the laws of the general theory of systems are typical and valid continuously, in accordance with which every functional cell of any systemic formation should be occupied and always is occupied only by the functioning unit corresponding to it. Therefore in any nucleus the fnl. place of proton should be occupied only by a proton with the strictly corresponding fnl. characteristic, but not by a hyperon or meson. All fnl. cells of atomic orbitals are being filled in by electrons with strictly specific characteristics, and in the case of alteration of one of them the electron cannot stay already in the given fnl. cell, which entails a change of fnl. features of the whole system of the given atom. At the same time all chemical compounds of substances are based on the temporal diversity of the periods of existence of fnl. cells of atomic orbitals and fng. units - electrons.
   The dual nature of functional cells and functioning units is confirmed by the famous theory of Dirak about antiparticles. As it is known, its idea comes to the following. If all positions with negative energy (fnl. cells) in any systemic formations are already occupied by fng. units - electrons, no one new electron can get over to these positions from positions with positive energy, since, as we know, each fnl. cell can be occupied only by one fng. unit - there is no place there for another one. However, if by some reason an electron with negative energy leaves its fnl. cell, among positions with negative energy one position will remain not filled in, or, as one used to say, a 'hole' will appear. But lack of negative charge is perceiving as a positive charge and lack of negative energy - as ordinary positive energy: minus by minus gives plus. Dirak's theory predicted the possibility of the appearance of positively charged electrons, which later got the name positrons. If an ordinary electron with negative charge meets a positron, it can fill up the hole, that is 'fall' to a vacant place among positions with negative energy. The surplus of energy would be transmitted to the electromagnetic field and the background of electrons with negative energy would become uniform everywhere, that is not being observed. So if all the positions with negative energy are occupied, that is the normal and main condition of the background as a whole: then there are no holes-positrons. Interaction of an electron (fng. unit) with a positron (fnl. cell) results in the annihilation of their particular qualitative features while they themselves become a part of a structure of a higher systemic organisation.
   The principle of duality of fnl. cells and fng. units is attributed also to structures of bigger elements. Thus in an experimental way, as it is known, antinuclei of isotope of helium-3 were detected. It is not excluded, that one of the continuations of this theory is logically connected with a solution of the mysteries of large black holes in outer space and the possibility of existence of the antiworld. But this is the subject of another study.
   Considering the nature of interactions of different elements of sublevels A - C we can subdivide them in accordance with universally recognised classification into four types, differing one from the other: strong, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational. Their big difference is seen from the comparison of the relative intensities of interactions, which relate correspondingly as 1:10-2:10-5:10-38. The gravitational interaction determines the structure of outer space, electromagnetic - the structure of atom and molecule, the strong interaction defines the structure of nucleus. All particles of mentioned sublevels are exposed to the weak interaction with the exception of photon. Moreover it is necessary to keep in mind, that certain symmetries are attributed to all said interactions. And if for some interactions they are closely connected with the symmetry of space-time, then for the others they submit to the laws of internal symmetry of interactions.
   Before the continuation of our study along the coordinate of quality we should stop at one more important moment. As we have already noted, parallel with the motion of Matter in the sublevel C, that is a functional differentiation of its cells and units, simultaneous concentration of elements into star bodies, which spatial volume was incomparably less than left materially rarefied interstellar space, was taking place. As a result, with the help of already mentioned formula of the whole energy of a system of spots

one can make a range of interesting conclusions.

   It is known, that because they are bound in star structures, displacements of material formations of the sublevel C are extremely decreased (that is , and ), while energy of the whole system remains as a constant magnitude. Then the formula of the whole energy for systemic elements, having concentrated in space, will be transformed into the sense expression . But if to take into consideration, that a total mass is an object of functional differentiation , then the said dependence one can write as , which means, that in conditions of the limitation of movement in space, characteristic for material particles concentrated in star-planetary bodies of the Universe, for keeping the trend of the tensor of the Evolution of Matter the motion in quality () should be in quadratic dependence from the motion of Matter in time. Owing to this the increment of functional features of material systems, concentrated in star-planetary formations, for some region of the Universe is passing considerably faster, than if it was happening for the whole material substance uniformly stretching and moving along the space of the Universe.
   From the same equations it follows that for material systems - fng. units the movement of which in space is practically limited (), the time of functioning is equal to the square root from their functional total mass , that is the less is their total mass the shorter is the period of their functioning and, correspondingly, existence. Figuratively speaking, the obtained equation one can name "the formula of death of all frozen".
   It is appropriate to note here, that with every subsequent organisational level of the Evolution of Matter the fng. units are bearing more and more fnl. loads, that is the coefficient of their polyfunctionality is increasing. And the more complex in organisation a structural level of Matter is, the higher this coefficient will be. The noted factor facilitates the solution of the problem of acceleration of the motion of Matter in quality () in conditions of the limited space () of star-planetary formations.

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Igor I. Kondrashin - Dialectics of Matter (Part III, continuation)

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Igor I. Kondrashin

Dialectics of Matter

Dialectical Genesis of Material Systems
(continuation)

Level D

The following organisational level of systemic formations of Matter unites all the qualitative variety of inorganic elements. To proceed from requirements of the law of augmentation of increase of functions per a unit of time owing to the limitation of spatial displacement, the appearance of systemic formations of the present sublevel was taking place mainly on the planetary bodies of the Universe.

   The chemical compound of the elements of Matter, but more precisely, the chemical connection between functioning units of the sublevel C (that is atoms) serves as a forming base of structures of the level D. As a result of that fng. units of the new level (molecules) are being formed, each of them has its strictly definite fnl. features, most of which have been studied well by nowadays.
   Let us consider briefly the mechanism of the functioning of the chemical connection.
   All numerous chemical processes are going on as a result of the mutual re-grouping of atoms being accompanied by breaks of old fnl. links between them and the generation of new ones within the limits of structures of fnl. cells of elements of the present sublevel. There are no chemical reactions during which the links between fnl. cells, occupied by different atoms, would not modify. The electronic covers of atoms, having entered into contacts with each other, are responsible outwardly for this. Therefore we can safely affirm that it is their principal fnl. characteristic, their function.
   A contiguity of interacting atoms being accompanied by partial recovering of their electronic covers is the necessary condition for the beginning of a chemical connection between them. As an example, let us examine the mechanism of the organisation of the simplest by structure formation of the present level - a molecule of hydrogen.
   The electron in an atom of hydrogen occupies a definite power level, which is the lowest if the atom is not excited and is situated in an isolated condition. During the closing in of two atoms their electrons experience attraction from the sides of both atoms, which is increasing with the decrease in the distance between them. However, at a certain phase the closing in of the atoms can be suspended owing to the influence of repulsion forces between the electrons, as each of them has the negative charge. Therefore a further interaction of the two atoms will be taking place depending on the characteristic of the spins of their electrons. Electrons with parallel (equally directed) spins ( ) are pushing off from each other, and electrons with antiparallel spins ( ) are closing in, tightening into an electronic couple. This principle was already mentioned by us during the description of the construction of atomic orbitals of electronic covers of atoms.
   Consequently, during the closing in of the two atoms of hydrogen, two electrons, the spins of which are antiparallel, can enter into the space between the atomic nuclei. As a result a stable diatomic systemic formation appears - a molecule of hydrogen H2, fnl.cells of which are filled in by fng. units of the sublevel C - atoms of hydrogen. The total kinetic energy of the system of two atoms is decreasing owing to its absorption during the generation of the system itself in the way of transformation of a part of the kinetic energy of separate atoms into the potential energy of connection of the molecule. The nuclei of connected atoms remain at a strictly definite distance and are performing oscillations relative to each other. The balanced internuclear distance, having the name 'a length of chemical connection', for a molecule H2 is equal 0,74 at radii of hydrogen atoms 0,53 . A field of space between atomic nuclei, where the probability of finding an electronic couple is at maximum, constitutes a molecular orbital. As we have elucidated, two electrons with parallel spins cannot be situated there simultaneously. Therefore during the closing in of two atoms, the electrons of which have parallel spins, a molecule of hydrogen cannot be formed.
   A chemical connection can arise both between separate atoms of the periodical system of the sublevel C and between more complex fng. units - molecules, ions, radicals... But in any case at its foundation a method of valency links is used, the principle postulate of which is that the valency of any given unit is equal to the number of its uncoupled electrons. If in an atom there are vacant orbitals (fnl. cells of the level AA), which differ very little in the level of energy from orbitals, having a couple of electrons, then a transition of one of the electrons is possible to a vacant orbital of a neighbouring sublayer. As a result, the electrons 'uncouple' and become valency. However, to actualise such a transition of an electron to another orbital, that is to excite the atom, one should expend a definite quantity of extrasystemic energy. The number of generalised electronic couples defines the covalency of an element.
   Each fng. unit (an atom, an ion or a molecule) having in an orbital an uncoupled electron, following the laws of motion of Matter in quality (), is striving to establish an atomic connection with partners and therefore has high reactional ability, revealing itself first of all in reactions of substitution (Na + H2O = NaOH + H) and joining (H + H = H2 or H + Cl = HCl).
   The connection between atoms, being realised by the common electronic couple, can arise in another way as well. If in an atomic orbital of one atom (D) there are two electrons, and the other atom (A) has a vacant atomic orbital, then the connection between them is being formed on the account of the couple of electrons of the first atom (D: á). The atom D, giving the electronic couple for forming the connection, is a donor, and the atom A, having a vacant orbital, an acceptor.
   The formation of a donor-acceptoral connection is taking place quite differently from the mechanism of a covalency link, but brings the same result. During it a complication of composition and structure of substances with formation of complicated "complex" compounds is happening, bearing their strictly definite functional load. As a rule, one of the atoms (usually the acceptor) taking up the position in the centre is coordinating units around it, which are entering with it into the donor-acceptoral connection, also having therefore the name of a coordinative link. Owing to the coordinative link a chemical saturation of atom is taking place, as a result of which the internal energy of the system of interacting atoms is going down. Because of this the total valency of an atom (as a sum of all its links) can be high enough.
   Thus during the establishment of a chemical connection, the atom gives a partner either an atomic orbital with two vacant fnl. cells (an acceptor), or an atomic orbital with one electron and one vacant fnl. cell, or an atomic orbital with a couple of electrons - fng. units (a donor). Therefore the valency of an element is equal to a total number of orbitals of its atom participating in the formation of chemical connections. During the filling in by electrons fnl. cells of all possible atomic orbitals an atom is becoming chemically saturated and incapable of establishing additional chemical connections.
   In a general case, an establishment of each additional valency link leads to a further stabilisation of a molecule, and so the most steady molecules are such, in atoms of which all stable atomic orbitals either are used for establishment of connections or occupied by not divided couples of electrons.
   A covalency, like a donor-acceptoral chemical connection, is being established between atoms disposed in space relative to each other in a certain manner - directionally. And so the more completely in space one is covered with the other two atomic orbitals participating in a chemical connection, the less reserve of energy electrons, being situated in the field of covering and actualising the connection, have, and the more stable the chemical connection between these atoms is. The direction of chemical connections in space gives all multiatomic particles (molecules, ions, radicals) a definite configuration. An internal structure of a substance as well as its fnl. features depend on it.
   Parallel with the development of the structure of fng. units of the level D, a further division of their fnl. features was going on. As an example of this the division of units to diamagnetic and paramagnetic can serve. The first ones put up resistance to the passage of the magnetic lines of force more than 'vacuum', and the second are passing them better than 'vacuum'. Therefore an external magnetic field is forcing out diamagnetic substances and pulling in paramagnetic. Such a difference in their behaviour is explained by peculiarities of their structural construction, dictated by laws of lower organisational levels, the influence of which defines the character of internal magnetic fields of a substance forming from its own magnetic moments of nucleons and electrons. A magnetic moment of any atom is determined mainly by the total spinal magnetic moment of electrons, as magnetic moments of protons and neutrons are approximately by three grades less than moments of electrons. If two electrons are in one orbital, then their magnetic fields are locking, as both of them can have antiparallel spins. Thus, if in a substance, representing a sum of similar units, magnetic moments of all electrons are mutually compensated, that is all electrons are coupled, then this substance is diamagnetic. On the contrary, if in orbitals there are idle electrons, then the substance reveals paramagnetics. Molecular hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, carbon and lithium (in a gaseous state) can serve as examples of diamagnetic substances. Molecular boron, oxygen, nitric oxide relate to paramagnetic.
   Substances with anomalously high magnetic receptivity (for example, ferrum) relate to ferromagnetic. However, ferromagnetism is revealing by them only in a solid state.
   Here we should also note, that one of the important types of chemical connection, originated within the period of motion of Matter in her evolution along the level D, are oxidizing-restorative reactions. Those are the reactions, as a result of which the grades of elements' oxidation are being changed, that is mutual relative displacement of electrons of substances, that have entered the reaction, is taking place, at the same time an output of electrons by some molecules is going on (oxidation) and joining them by the others (reduction). Oxidizing-restorative reactions are playing a big part in biological systems' activity, and such processes as photosynthesis, breathing, digestion, etc. can happen only because of them.
   Thus, during the evolution of Matter along the organisational level D, the functional differentiation of atoms became a cause of their structural integration into molecules.

Level E

All around us bodies and substances constitute combinations of a big number of fng. units of the level D - molecules, ions, radicals with strictly definite fnl. features - this or that way located in space and united into corresponding systemic formations of the level E. Their relative location in space is not fortuitous, but obeys objective laws of the general theory of systems, according to which they fill in destined for them fnl. cells in structures of systemic formations of a higher order. Depending on the character of the interactions of fng. units, being regulated by algorithms of corresponding fnl. cells, the substance uniting them is in one of phase states, the features of which predetermine a structure of the fixation of fnl. cells and a behaviour of fng. units filling them in.

   One can distinguish three principal types of phase states of substance - gaseous, liquid and solid. In addition, there are also such phase states as plasmas and superconductive. The difference between states is in the systemic organisation of fng. units entering them, their relative location in space and the level of their energy. During the transition of a substance from one phase state into another, first of all a structural reorganisation of the system of fnl. cells takes place, reflecting the reserve of internal energy of the substance, its heat capacity, density, etc. Besides, any system of units of the level D has a certain number of grades of freedom, equal to the number of conditions, that can be changed arbitrarily (within definite limits) without inspiring in the system phase transitions.
   It is quite natural to assume, that in the initial stage of the motion of Matter along the level E small associations of D-formations later were acquiring more and more complex structural composition, including primary microsystems as fng. units and uniting them into bigger macrosystems. The phase state of every macrosystem of the level E first of all depends on states of all microsystems entering it and is characterised by its thermodynamic probability. Thus, obeying statistics, a system is striving to turn into such a macrostate, to which most of the variants of microstates correspond.
   With the growth of the number of variants a probability of transition of a system into a given state is rising and at the same time an order in location of particles is decreasing, that is a 'disorder' in the system is increasing. Implied by this is an expansion of the set of both velocities and directions of movement (forward, vibratory, rotary) in space of fng. units of all levels forming a system (of molecules, atoms, electrons, etc.). The above is reflecting the aspiration of Matter through systemic states to balance her motion in quality-space-time in accordance with the laws of her Evolution. Therefore systems, obeying the regularities of development in the three categories, are striving to turn into states, ensuring their most stability, however, during that the extent of isolation (or locking) of a given system, defining its ability to participate in formation of fng. units of a higher order in accordance with the requirements of , is playing more and more a part.
   Besides, it is necessary to bear in mind, that every system of the level E has already a substantial quantity (by comparison with lower levels) of reserve of internal energy, being formed from the energy of movement, vibration and rotation of all molecules, the energy of movement of electrons and nuclei in atoms, the energy of nucleons, that is from a total energy of all kind of the motion of all the fng. units of lower levels, included in the structure of a given system. A location or displacement of the system in space as a fng. unit of an organisational level of the next order do not affect the reserve of internal energy, therefore the kinetic and, in certain cases, the potential energy of the system as a whole are not the components of its internal energy, which depends only on the organisational level of the system as well as on the extent of its isolation.
   In the case of a lack of locking of a systemic formation (), only those processes can go on in the system that lead to the decreasing of internal energy, to the perfection of systemic organisation, to free motion of Matter in space-time-quality. In the locked, to a certain extent, systems (not exchanging with external surroundings by fng. units and energy) only such processes can go on, during which the entropy of the system is growing.
   Much of the above is confirmed by the formula , which has already been considered by us and which after the permutation of meanings is transforming into . In systems not isolated the development of material substance is going on relatively equivalently in , however at higher levels of organisation, including level E, owing to the reduction of velocities of spreading in space, is substantially decreasing in comparison with the dynamics of this parameter at lower levels, the energy of the combined Matter is declining for each significant volume of space and motion in quality strives to more and more spatial localisation (but not to isolation). In closed systems (, ) the above formula transforms, as it is known, into , that is a system strives to get over into a state with a maximum number of variants, owing to that the process can go on always until such a state, the entropy of which has the maximum value for existing conditions. Thus, a state, in which a system can be under unchanging conditions, is a result of competition of the two active factors - entropic and energetic. (The accumulative factor has always a passive character.)
   During the conversion of a substance into this or that phase state depending on the conditions the two opposite tendencies come into collision: the first - the striving to declining of internal energy, leading to a loss of mobility by particles and to increasing of order in the system, and the second - the striving to an augmentation of the entropy, leading to decreasing of the systemic order. Any process at any organisational level, including even as high as social, is a reflection of the struggle of these opposite factors, and it is necessary always to bear in mind this fact. In systemic processes at the level E a predominance of one of the factors leads to a gradual conversion of a system into a more thermodynamically stable state.
   While a predominance of the energetic factor a process is going toward declining of internal energy of a system as a result of intensification of interaction of particles of a substance occurring with emitting of energy. To such processes we can attribute mainly those processes, that complicate the structure of a substance, raise its aggregation: formation of a molecule from atoms, association of molecules, straightening and mutual relative orientation of macromolecules, compression of gases, condensation of steam, crystallisation of a substance.
   In the case of the prevailing of the entropic factor a process is going towards augmentation of the entropy of a system as a result of separation of particles of a substance and their mutual moving away from each other. Those are mainly the processes, linked with the disaggregation of a substance: the melting of a substance, its evaporation, expansion and mixture of gases, solution of substances, disassociation of molecules, etc.
   Let us consider briefly the peculiarities of the behaviour of fng. units in structures of a substance in systemic formations of the organisational level E during different phase states.
   A gaseous state of a substance - more probable at high temperatures - is characterised by high meanings of entropy. It reflects an entire disorder in a system of fng. units, performing individual forward movements with different velocities and practically not interacting one with others. The less energy of interaction between the two fng. units, being in contact (weak connections), the bigger reserve of internal energy a system has, and then even at lower temperatures a substance is able to be in a gaseous state. To such substances are attributed first of all inert gases, atoms of which experience a very weak attraction one to another.
   During the complication of structural construction of fng. units (owing to ), their ability for mutual attraction is growing. It reveals itself in the rise of the temperatures of boiling of substances with growth of fnl. mass of elements composing them. At a set temperature an average velocity () of molecules of a gas depends on their functional mass: the higher its meaning, the more energy is required to increase its velocity (). Velocities of molecules are linked with parameters of a system's state (with a temperature, a pressure) and therefore are an important characteristic of their behaviour.
   A thermal motion of molecules in a substance makes conditional its ability to diffusion, that is to a spontaneous transition of a substance to those fields of space (), where its concentration is less or equal to zero. This feature reveals itself in quite different natural processes - evaporation, dissolution, osmosis, glueing, etc.
   During the cooling of substances being in a gaseous state (or while strong pressing them), the forces of interaction between particles begin to predominate over the energy of their thermal motion, and at a certain temperature (individual for each substance) it turns into a liquid state. An essential condition of such a transition is the establishment of connections between separate fng. units (molecules or atoms), as a result of which the internal energy of a system is becoming less. A liquid state of a substance gives a more 'organised' structure, than its gaseous state, but it is less stable, that is susceptible to more frequent changes during different periods of time (), than a solid substance. Therefore a liquid state is intermediate between gaseous and solid. Molecules of a liquid, having the possibility of displacements, keep the definite order in mutual relative location. By the structure and the character of interactions between particles a liquid is more similar to crystals, than to gases. As well as solid bodies, liquids have a certain volume, that also distinguishes them from gases. The principle distinction of a liquid from a solid body is the lack of its own form.
   Thus, each fng. unit of the sublevel E depending on a fnl. cell, it occupies, can be in a structure of a substance in any phase state: 1) gaseous, 2) liquid, 3) solid.

Through the analysis of the structural peculiarities of the phase states of substances it is obvious that fng. units in a gaseous state do not interact with each other, therefore their structure is uncertain and changeable. In a liquid state one can observe more interaction in the behaviour of fng. units, they are united into a more combined structure, having more definite features than a gaseous state of a substance. Fng. units in the structure of a liquid perform 1012 - 1013 vibrations per second, staying in a certain fnl. cell during 10-11 - 10-10 seconds. Hence, until a jump to a new position or until a reorganisation of the structure of fnl. cells around it, a fng. unit manages to complete from 10 to 100 vibrations. In other words, only from 1 to 10% of vibratory moves of a fng. unit end by its displacement in space. By this the features of similarity of a liquid with a solid body are revealing themselves, as in a solid body almost no one vibration of a molecule (or an atom) occurs with its transition to another place. But if a solid body is characterised by practically invariable relative location of fng. units, then in a liquid as a result of the relative displacements of units the compression of the structure of fnl. cells is irregular, and local alterations of short duration in separate parts of the structure are being observed constantly. Under the action of external forces (for example, of force of gravity) displacements of separate concentrations of particles in a liquid, that is fluctuations of its density, become directional. As a result a liquid is flowing that is moving with an alteration of its form, but with preservation of the entire volume (if there is no evaporation), in the direction of an application of force. Thus, the fluidity is a specific feature of a liquid body, caused by a limited mobility of its structural units.

   The structure of a liquid is very sensitive to alterations of temperature. At temperatures close to T-melting the structure of a liquid is approximating to a solid body as it has elements of a crystal structure, and vice versa, at temperatures close to T-boiling the order in locations of fng. units is reducing to a minimum and an intensive evaporation starts, that means, that a substance is turning into a gaseous state. Therefore the temperature is a conceptual index of vibrations of fng. units relatively each other in a given system within the limits allowed by fnl. cells, they occupy. In their turn the frequency and the amplitude of vibrations of fng. units, that is the velocity of their displacement in space per a unit of time, depend on the quantity of kinetic energy, coming to this group of fng. units at the given moment of time. During a rise of T, that is while receiving by the given group of fng. units some additional quantity of kinetic energy, the amplitude and the frequency of vibrations are increasing until a certain significance, exceeding which fng. units leave the fnl. cells of a given structure, getting over into fnl. cells of another phase state with other permissible significances of amplitudes and frequencies of vibration. The opposite process is going during a decline of temperature, that is while the decreasing of the quantity of kinetic energy, coming to the given group of fng. units of a substance. From the point of view of a substance's formation a liquid state is the most changeable and varied.
   While hardening substances acquire the structure, that has a distant order in the location of fng. units forming them (molecules, atoms or ions). Therefore it is enough to know a part of the structure of fnl. cells in order to get a conception about their location in the entire volume of the given solid body. As a rule, the cells form in it the strictly definite crystals, while according to the principles of the general theory of systems all fnl. cells should be filled in by fng. units corresponding to them.
   The crystal structure of a substance thermodynamically is more steady, then amorphous. This can be explained in the way that the regular location of fng. units in the cells of crystals allows them to establish the maximum number of connections between themselves, and this assists to a further reduction of the reserve of internal energy in a substance. A tightly-filled packing of fng. units one can imagine as a piling of balls of the same size. In every row balls come into contact with each other, and a ball of the next row is situated between two balls of the previous row. A distinctive feature of the most compact piling of balls is a big number of the nearest neighbours of each ball: six in one layer and by three from below and from above. Thus, during the most compact piling of balls a so-called coordinational number of each ball equals 12.
   The construction of crystals one can imagine usually with the help of their abstract illustrations - crystal lattices, representing a three-dimensional figure, received by conjunction with straight lines of centres of fnl. cells. It is necessary to underline, that a crystal lattice, as well as all elements forming it, are only a mathematical abstraction being used for the description of the structure of a crystal and, in the first place, for the description of a symmetry in the location of its fnl. cells.
   The atoms of a solid substance as fng. units take up positions in accordance with the given structure of fnl. cells, while during an augmentation of total interaction between them the internal energy of the system is declining at the simultaneous growth of its steadiness. In the case of a reorganisation by this or that reason of the structure of fnl. cells of a substance the number of connections between its atoms is changing, that in a moment is revealing itself in a modification of the entire complex of fnl. features of the substance and is an evidence of its transformation into a new substance. Allotropic modifications of carbon - graphite and diamond - can serve as examples of that, as they differ not only by mechanical (hardness) and physical (electrical conductivity, light passing) fnl. features of these substances, but also by their chemical behaviour: if graphite is an analogue of organic compounds of the benzol group, then diamond has more in common with compounds of the saturated group. As other examples we can designate the molecular oxygen O2 and ozone O3.
   All crystal bodies, as stated above, are desmical (linked) systems, which by uniformity of connections, acting between atoms forming them, are usually divided into two groups: homodesmical (equally linked) and heterodesmical (differently linked). The crystals, having all connections of one type, can be attributed to homodesmical systems. It is impossible to pick out some isolated portions in such crystals as all the connections in the entire volume of the substance are adequate in between. These are atomic and metallic crystals as well as crystals consisting of ordinary ions.
   The crystals, having between fnl. cells connections of different types, are attributed to heterodesmical systems. We should take here ionic crystals, in the junctions of the lattice of which complex ions are situated, and molecular crystals.

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Igor I. Kondrashin - Dialectics of Matter (Part III, continuation)

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Igor I. Kondrashin

Dialectics of Matter

Dialectical Genesis of Material Systems
(continuation)

Level F

The motion of Matter along the coordinate of quality () goes on with more acceleration (that is at shorter periods of time - ) in the systems, where the motion in space () is limited. Owing to this the spatial localisation of fng. units of levels of high organisation, having occurred at a certain stage of the Evolution of material substance as a result of the regrouping of the structure of the Universe into star-planetary formations because of the constancy of the quantity of the aggregate Energy, became the cause of the acceleration of the motion in quality which is confirmed also by the formula . One of the hypothetically isolated centres of fnl. evolution of Matter became from some time the star-planetary couple the Sun - the Earth. The principal function of the Sun, as the centre with a predominance of the entropic factor of the system, became:

   1) the permanent (donor) provider of the whole systemic formation with fng. units of the sublevel AA, a part of which continuously fills in the fnl. cells on the Earth corresponding to them;
   2) the replenishment of the microenergetic balance on the Earth because of the possession by the said units of a definite impulse (mV). It is calculated that on all those purposes the Sun expends as a whole about 4 million tons of its mass per every second.
   The planet the Earth in its turn is the centre with a predominance of the energetic factor in this bipolar bunch and it serves as an arena for the motion of Matter along the coordinate of quality () at unknown yet in dimensions part of the Universe. Owing to this the subject of our research acquires a more limited space - the surface of the Earth's sphere.
   The development of fng. units of the sublevel E was going on our planet at an early stage of its existence. It is not ruled out that analogous processes are happening as well on the other planets of the Solar system. Nonetheless, starting from the organisational level F, to which the simplest high-molecular compounds are attributed, the description of the systemic processes can be confirmed by the facts only from the history of our planet, as we have no trustworthy information yet about their presence on other planets and we can assume such a possibility only theoretically.
   Besides the formation of fng. units of the new level the acceleration of the motion along the coordinate of quality was occurring also owing to a rise of the coefficient of their polyfunctioning. For the systemic organisation of the sublevel F the most useful turned out to be the atoms of carbon C and silicon Si, able because of the peculiarities of their structural construction to make up four chemical connections. If the connections are establishing with fng. units identical to them, then a substance in a solid state is existing only in the form of atomic crystals. The entire volume of such a substance is as if pierced by a thick three-dimensional lattice of atomic links and it is impossible to pick out in it some separate parts - islets, chains or layers.
   The most widespread minerals on the surface of the Earth's lithosphere - ordinary and compound silicates - have as the principal construction block an atom of silicon in the tetrahedrons surrounding of four atoms of oxygen. In nature there are three main modifications of the dioxide of silicon (SiO2):
   1) quartz, which is thermodynamically steady below 870oó;
   2) tridimit, steady from 870oó to 1470oó;
   3) crystobalit, steady above 1470oó.
   Thus, silicon is one of the most widespread elements in the earth crust. It constitutes 27% of the explored part of the earth crust occupying by prevalence the second place after oxygen. Silicon is the principal element in the compositions of minerals, rocks and soils.
   The most widespread element of the earth crust is oxygen. In a free state it is in the atmospheric air, in a bound state it forms part of water, minerals, rocks as well as all organic substances. The total quantity of oxygen in the earth crust is near a half of its mass (about 47%). The natural oxygen consists of three stable isotopes: 16O - (99,76%), 17O - (0,04%) and 18O - (0,2%).
   However, the biggest load in the systemic organisation of Matter falls on compounds, a part of which carbon forms. Though its total content in the earth crust is only about 0,1%, by a great number and a variety of its compounds carbon occupies an absolutely particular position among other elements and has the highest coefficient of polyfunctioning among fng. units of the level F. The number of the scrutinised compounds of carbon is estimated nowadays roughly at two million, while compounds of all the other elements, all together, are calculated only by hundreds of thousands. The variety of compounds of carbon is explained by an ability of its atoms to get mixed up in between the formation of lengthy chains or coils.
   As it was already noted, by the character of their connections compounds of fng. units are divided into homodesmical and heterodesmical, that serves as one more evidence of the availability of the motion of Matter in quality (). In the case of the existence in nature of only homodesmical connections, that are typical for centres of the energetic factor, the Evolution of Matter would have reached a deadlock, as the structural regrouping of fng. units of the present level would have led to the construction of systems of the level E only with the compact crystal packing. The energy of systems would have volatilized, and the Earth would have turned into a dead stone-metallic globe. The availability of the motion of Matter in quality rules out such a course of events. Therefore the existence of homodesmical systems equally with the action of centres with the entropic factor is conducive to the creation of different high-molecular compounds, each of them bearing this or that new fnl. load additional to the total existing spectrum of functions of the evolving Matter. Functional features of high-molecular compounds first of all are bound with the ability of macromolecules to modify their form without breaking their connections. The mechanism explaining the variety of conformations of macromolecules nowadays is well studied and is widely being used in the chemistry of polymer materials. Therefore we shall not dwell on its description. It is important only to underline here once again that, whatever construction high-molecular compounds would have, whatever their structure would be, we can always define in them invisible fnl. cells and occupying them real fng. units of different sublevels, that is different atoms, molecules, etc. If a fng. unit were to fall out of this or that fnl. cell or fill it in by a fng. unit not corresponding to it this will lead to the destruction of the structure of a given system or to an alteration of its fnl. features.
   In connection with the complexity of their structural construction and the presence of a great number of links all high-molecular compounds exist only in a condensed state - solid or liquid. However, by phase state they correspond more to the structure of liquid, which owing to a high viscosity seems to us in most cases a solid body.
   Complex compounds, very various both by the construction and the functional features, constitute a special subgroup of systemic formations of the sublevel F. But in the evolution of the material substance at the present organisational level they play more a secondary, or rather an auxiliary part. Further, at the levels of higher organisation of the material forms, their part is increasing. In particular, such most important natural compounds, determining Life on the Earth, as haemoglobin and chlorophyll, are attributed to intracomplex compounds. The structures of their nuclei are alike, only the fnl. cell of the unit, that initiates the formation of a certain complex, in chlorophyll is occupied by Mg2+, while in haemoglobin by Fe2+. By two vacant coordinational places two more molecules of other substances join easily those units-initiators of complexes occupying the free fnl. cells. So, in haemoglobin from one side of the plate of chelate a molecule of globin protein is connected by ferrum, and from the other side - a molecule of oxygen, owing to which this compound is a carrier of oxygen.
   The functional evolution of Matter in the sublevel F and the appearance of new structural formations were and are occurring owing to various transformations of substances by means of the redistribution of electronic densities between the atoms forming them, that leads to the breaking of the preceding and the creation of new intrastructural connections. However, it is enough to remember such chemical transformations as an explosion of gun-powder and the rusting of iron to assert that different structural modifications are moving with quite different velocities - from extremely high to very low. The causes of this are specific peculiarities of every reorganisation, that depend on a balanced spreading of a newly formed structure () in space-time () under present conditions as well as the qualitative characteristic of fng. units participating in the reaction.
   Intervals of the duration time of different chemical reactions per a unit of space vary from parts of a second to minutes, hours, days. Some reactions are known to need several years, decades and even longer periods of time for their continuance. If a reaction goes in a homogeneous system, then it is going in the entire volume of this system. As a result of the reaction, as a rule, a heterogeneous system appears:

H2SO4 + Na2S2O3 = Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2 + S

With any monophase mixture, the liquid solution of different substances can serve as examples of a homogeneous system. If a reaction is going between substances, forming a heterogeneous system, then it can go only on the surface of a phase division forming the system. So, for example, a dissolution of a metal in an acid Fe + 2HCl = FeCl2 + H2 can go only on the surface of the metal because it is only here that both reacting substances come into contact one with the other. The result of the reaction is again a heterogeneous system, which under the conditions of lack of locking by means of a dismissal of one of its phases can become a homogeneous system. As examples of heterogeneous systems we can designate the following systems: some water with ice, a saturated solution with sediment, sulphurs in the atmospheric air. At higher stages of the Evolution of Matter as examples of homogeneous systems can be brakes of plants functionally of the same type (a forest, meadow grass, orchards), united groups of animals functionally of the same type (a herd of sheeps, a pack of wolves or monkeys). Heterogeneous systems in this case will be: a herd of horses at a meadow, a team of lumbermen in a forest, production enterprises, etc. Chemical kinetics is engaged in the study of conditions having an influence on velocities of chemical reactions. At higher stages of the Evolution of Matter these problems should be referred to the biological and to the social kinetics accordingly.

   The following factors are referred to as the most important, having an influence on velocities of reactions, that go in systems of the level F: functional peculiarities of reacting substances, their concentrations, temperature, the presence of catalysts in a system. Velocities of some heterogeneous reactions depend also on the intensity of the flow of a liquid or a gas near the surface, where a reaction is going. After entering into a reaction of fng. units of two different substances fng. units of a third, a fourth, and etc. substance is being created, which fill in fnl. cells corresponding to them, though theoretically the process is occurring in the opposite order: at first an invisible fnl. cell (C) of a new quality appears, then there is the closing in of obvious fng. units (a and b) and the creation of a new fng. unit (c), which fills in the fnl. cell (C), are going. Therefore velocities of reactions depend on a capacity of reacting substances because of their structural constructions to create new fng. units, that is of spatial locations and mutual connections of initial fng. units of qualitative sublevels, on proportion and quantity of fng. units (a and b) entering into reactions, that is characterised by their concentrations.
   Their mutual closing in and collision of one with another (costroke) is the necessary condition so that between particles (molecules, ions) of initial substances a chemical interaction would occur. Speaking precisely, particles should approach each other so much, that atoms of one of them would feel the influence of electrical fields originated by atoms of the other one. Only in such a case would those transitions of electrons and regroupings of atoms become possible, resulting in the formation of molecules of new substances - products of a reaction. However, not every collision of molecules of reacting substances leads to the origination of the product of a reaction. In order that a reaction occurs, that is new molecules form, it is necessary to break or to weaken the connections between the atoms in molecules of initial substances. That requires the spending of some energy. If colliding molecules do not have enough energy, then their collision would not lead to the formation of a molecule: having come into a collision they fly away in different directions like elastic balls.
   If the kinetic energy of colliding molecules is enough to weaken or to break the connections, then a collision can initiate a reorganisation of atoms and the formation of a molecule of a new substance. Therefore only those molecules that have a surplus of energy in comparison with the average reserve of energy of all molecules can overcome such an 'energetic barrier' in order to get into a chemical contact with each other. The surplus energy that molecules should have in order that their collision could lead to the formation of a new substance is named the energy of activation of a given reaction. The molecules that have such energy are named active molecules. The surplus energy of those molecules can be forward or rotary for a molecule as a whole, vibratory for atoms, forming it, the energy of excitement for electrons, etc. For each specific reaction only one kind of surplus energy can be principal. With a rise of temperature the number of active molecules is increasing and as a result of that the velocities of chemical reactions are accelerating as well.
   The energy of activation of different reactions is different. Its magnitude is the factor by which the influence of reacting substances tells on the velocity of a reaction. For some reactions the energy of activation is insufficient, for others, on the contrary, it is more than enough. If the energy of activation is too insufficient, then it means that most collisions between particles of reacting substances lead to a reaction. The velocity of such a reaction is high. On the contrary, if the energy of activation is more than enough, then it means that only a very small number of collisions of interacting particles leads to a chemical reaction. The velocity of such a reaction is very little.
   The reactions, which require some appreciable energy of activation in order to move, start from the breaking or weakening of connections between atoms in molecules of initial substances. During it the substances are getting over into an unsteady intermediate state, which is characterised by a large reserve of energy - an activated complex. Precisely for the formation of which the energy of activation is essential. An unstable activated complex is in existence for a very short time. It is decomposing with the formation of the products of the reaction, during which energy is going out. In a simplest case an activated complex is a configuration of atoms, in which the previous connections are weakened and new ones are being formed. An activated complex arises as an intermediate state during both direct and reverse reaction. Energetically it differs from initial substances by a magnitude of energy of activation of a direct reaction and from final substances - by energy of activation of a reverse reaction. Activation of molecules is possible during the heating or dissolution of a substance, while emitting energy during a reaction itself, while absorbing by them quantums of radiation (light, radio-active, X-ray, etc.), under an effect of supersound or of electrical discharge and even from strokes into sides of a jar.
   The velocity of a reaction often depends on the presence in a system of the 'third' component, with which reagents can compose an activated complex. During that an alteration of the velocity of a reaction occurs owing to the alteration of the energy of its activation as intermediate stages of the process would be different. The additional component, which is named a catalyst, after the destruction of the activated complex, does not form part of the products of a reaction, therefore the general equation of the process remains the same. In most cases the effect of a catalyst can be explained by the fact that it reduces the energy of activation of a reaction. In the presence of a catalyst the reaction is going through different intermediate stages, whereas without it, moreover, those stages energetically are more accessible. In other words, in the presence of a catalyst different activated complexes arise, while for their formation less energy is required than during the formation of activated complexes that arise without a catalyst. Thus the energy of activation is going down - some molecules, the energy of which was insufficient for active collisions, now become active.
   If a reaction A + B AB is going with a slow velocity, then it is possible to find a substance K, that forms an activated complex with one of the reagents, interacting in its turn with another reagent:

A + B [A... K]; [A... K] + B AB + K

If the energy of activation of these stages is lower than the energy of activation of the process in the absence of K, then the total velocity of the process is increasing considerably and such a catalysis is named positive. Otherwise, the velocity of the process would decrease and a catalysis would be negative. Thus a catalyst is a substance that alters the velocity of a reaction and remains after that chemically invariable. A catalyst, present in a system in quantities of a thousand times less than reagents, can alter the velocity of a reaction by hundreds, thousands, millions of times. In certain cases under the effect of catalysts such reactions can be excited, which without them practically do not go on in the given conditions. At the same time, with the help of a catalyst it is possible to alter the velocity only of a thermodynamically possible process. For slowing down undesirable processes or for giving reactions more quiet character negative catalysts are used.

   One can discern a homogeneous and a heterogeneous catalysis. In case of a homogeneous catalysis the catalyst and reacting substances form one phase (a gas or a solution). In case of a heterogeneous catalysis the catalyst is in the system in the form of an independent phase and the reaction takes place on its surface.
   The catalysis plays a very important part in biological systems. Ferments - plain and complex proteins with big molecular mass - are active catalysts of biological effect. Most of the chemical reactions going on in the digestive system, in blood and cells of animals and men, are catalytic reactions. So, a saliva has the ferment ptyalin, which catalyses the transformation of starch into sugar. The ferment pepsin, present in the stomach, catalyses the desintegration of proteins. Half of an available quantity of urea under ordinary conditions at the temperature 25oC is decomposed by water during 3200 years, but in the presence of the ferment urease the time of its 'half-transformation' at the same temperature is only 10-4 sec. In total more than 30 thousand different ferments are functioning in the organism of a man; each of them serves as an effective catalyst of the corresponding reaction.
   On studying heterogeneous reactions, it is not difficult to notice that they are closely linked with the processes of displacement of fng. units of substances, entering a reaction, and new substances. So, to keep the process of the burning of pieces of coal constant it is necessary that dioxide of carbon, forming during this reaction, would be moved away all the time from the surface of the coal and new quantities of oxygen would approach it. Therefore during a heterogeneous reaction one can single out at least three stages:
   1) supply of reacting substances;
   2) a chemical reaction itself;
   3) taking aside the products of the reaction.
   The velocity of a chemical reaction, which in its turn can be divided into substages, is determined by the velocity of the slowest substage. A stage, determining the velocity of going of the reaction as a whole, is named the limiting stage. In one case it can be a supply or taking aside substances, in another - a chemical reaction itself.
   All chemical reactions are divided into irreversible and reversible. Irreversible reactions are going till the end - until the complete consumption of one of the reacting substances. Reversible reactions are going not till the end: during a reversible reaction no one reacting substance is consumed completely. Consequently an irreversible reaction can go only in one direction, and a reversible one - both in one and in the reverse directions as well. At the beginning of a reversible reaction during the mixture of the initial substances the velocity of the one-direction reaction is high and the velocity of the reverse one is equal to zero. While a reaction is going on the initial substances are being used up and their concentrations are declining. As a result of that the velocity of the one-direction reaction is decreasing. At the same time products of the reaction are being composed and their concentration is increasing. Owing to this the reverse reaction starts going while its velocity gradually grows. When the velocities of the one-direction and the reverse reactions become identical, the chemical (dynamic) balance begins.
   By changing the conditions a system is under - concentration of substances, pressure, temperature - it is possible to alter the velocities of the one-direction and the reverse reactions. Then the balance in the system is being broken and moved in the direction of that reaction, the velocity of which became higher. So, during the increase of the concentration of reagents, the velocity of the one-direction reaction naturally is growing and the balance is being moved towards the one-direction reaction, towards more output of products. More output of products can be obtained also by systematically getting them out of the sphere of the reaction, which leads to the decreasing of their concentration in the system and to the deceleration of the reverse reaction in comparison with the one-direction one. For chemical systems, which contain gaseous substances, changes of pressure have the same influence on the shift of the balance as the changes of the concentration of gases. During that the velocity of that reaction is changing more, in which more molecules of gases are participating. The changing of temperature has influence on the displacement of the chemical balance for processes accompanied by thermal effects. If a one-direction reaction is exothermal, then the reverse one is endothermal, and vice versa. For reversible reactions the energy of activation of an endothermal process is more the energy of activation of an exothermal process. In its turn, the more Eact. is, the more the velocity of a reaction depends on temperature. So, an increase of temperature is moving the chemical balance toward an endothermal reaction, as a result of which heat is taken up and the system is cooling down.
   On comparing the changes of conditions under which a chemical system is staying with its responding reaction to an outer influence, revealing itself in the moving of the chemical balance, it is not difficult to notice that this reaction always turns out to be opposite to the change of a condition. So, if the concentration of some substance, which is in balance with other reacting substances, is being reduced, then the balance is moving toward the reaction, increasing the concentration of this substance. While increasing the pressure then that process starts going faster, which decreases it, and during the rise in temperature - the process, that causes cooling of the system. These observations form the chemical content of the general principle of behaviour of systems, staying under given conditions in a state of the dynamic balance: if a system, staying in balance, undergoes an influence from without by alteration of some condition, determining the state of balance, then the balance in it is moving toward the process, which leads to the reduction of the effect of the influence. This rule of counteraction is known under the name the principle of La Chattily, formulated by him in 1884.
   Thus, for the carrying through of each chemical reaction strictly definite reagents are needed in quantities providing the required going of the reaction under a given temperature and other conditions at a definite velocity, which can be commensurate with temporal intervals. Moreover, every chemical reaction, going under given conditions, has its own definite systemic construction, constituting a combination of fnl. cells which at certain moments are being filled in and set free by fng. units corresponding to them according to the typical for a given reaction algorithm, reflecting the moments of entering the reaction by reagents - fng. units, their possible interchange, while all this is correlated with strictly definite periods of time, fixed by an independent counter of time.

Level G

All the simplest and complex molecular compounds of the levels D, E and F are dispersed along the surface of the Earth, and in accordance with their aggregate state form part of the land, oceans and atmosphere of the Earth.

   The Evolution of Matter along the sublevel G was going by forming new molecular compounds, which obtained more and more new functions in accordance with the motion of Matter in quality ().
   The differentiation of fnl. cells and formation of new fng. units of the present level were going in the process of the continual combining of fnl. cells of previous sublevels, integrating and modifying their structures, semi-decomposition of these original microsystems to the units of lower sublevels.
   The whole process of the Evolution of Matter along the sublevel G has been going for more than 5 billion years in the geospheres of the Earth - spherical covers of different density and composition. For the most part they are atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere (the Earth's crust), which penetrate one into another, are in close interaction, consisting in the exchange of substance and energy, and represent the common system, being pierced by the Sun's radiation.
   The outer geosphere is the atmosphere, which in its turn divides into three sub covers: troposphere, stratosphere and ionosphere. Each of these subspheres is characterised by sharply expressed physics peculiarities and bears strictly definite functional loading. The boundaries between these covers are expressed not so sharply and their altitudes are changing both with the time and latitude of a place. The upper boundary of the troposphere is within the bounds from 8 to 18 km. The troposphere unites more than 79% of the mass of atmosphere. The stratosphere is extended till the altitude of about 80 km, constituting approximately 20% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Above the stratosphere is located ionosphere, having less than 0.5% of the total mass of the atmosphere.
   The troposphere, where almost all water steam is concentrated, is characterised by almost full transparency with regard to the short-wave sun radiation passing through it, and by considerable absorption of the long-wave (thermal) radiation of the Earth, caused mainly by water steam and clouds. Therefore the troposphere is warming mainly from the earthy surface, as a result of which is the drop of temperature with altitude. In its turn this leads to the vertical mixing of air, the condensation of water steam, and the formation of clouds, rain and snow. The composition of the troposphere includes (by volume) 78.08% of nitrogen; 20.95% of oxygen; 0.93% of argon and about 0.03% of carbonic acid gas. 0.01% consists of hydrogen, neon, helium, krypton, xenon, ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, iodine and others.
   The composition of dry air in the stratosphere differs by a very important peculiarity - by increasing with altitude both the total concentration and relative content of ozone (three-atom oxygen). Ozone is being formed in the stratosphere as a result of the dissociation of molecules of oxygen under the influence of ultra-violet radiation of the Sun and the subsequent joining of the turned out atom of oxygen with another molecule of oxygen. Ozone is located in the atmosphere in the form of a diffused layer, extended from the Earth's surface approximately 60 km. If all the ozone of the atmosphere concentrated in the form of the layer under the overground pressure, then the pellicle with thickness 2 - 3 mm could be seen. Despite so insignificant a quantity the importance of the ozone in the atmosphere is exceptionally great due to the extremely strong absorption by ozone of the radiation of both the Sun and the Earth. So, owing to being absorbed by ozone, the ultra-violet radiation of the Sun almost does not reach the troposphere at all.
   The ionosphere, the outer sphere of the atmosphere, gets the diverse radiation of the Sun and stars. Its structure consists mainly of atoms of oxygen and other substances.
   Between the atmosphere and the solid stone earth-crust there is an interrupted water cover - the hydrosphere, covering nowadays 70.8% (361 mln. sq. km) of the surface of the Earth. It constitutes the aggregate of oceans, seas and continental water basins. The chemical composition of the hydrosphere is expressed by the following figures: O - 85.82%, H - 10.72%, Cl - 1.9%, Na - 1.05%, Mg - 0.14%, S - 0.088%, Ca - 0.04%, K - 0.038% , etc. The age of the hydrosphere is not less than 2 bln. years. In the hydrosphere Life on Earth was originated for the first time. The evolution of organisms went on here during the whole pre-Cambrian period, and only at the beginning of the Palaeozoic era did animal and vegetable organisms start to move gradually to land. The main component of the hydrosphere is water - one of the most widespread substances on the Earth. A lot of this water is in the gaseous state in the form of steams in the atmosphere; during the whole year it is situated in the form of huge masses of snow and ice on the tops of high mountains and in Arctic regions. In the depths of the Earth there is also water, soaking soil and rocks. Water has rather high coefficient of polyfunctionality and bears a large spectrum of functions to be fulfilled. Being the first cradle of the origin of Life, water in each organism constitutes habitat, in which chemical processes, which provide the vital activity of organisms, take place; moreover it itself participates in a large number of biochemical reactions. In the form of different solutions water carries out the functions of displacement (transportation) of different fng. units from the place of their synthesis to the place of their functioning in the structure of organism. Being a highly reactionary capable substance, water is an active chemical reagent; very often it carries out the functions of a catalyst. Having an anomalously high thermal capacity it serves as a natural thermal accumulator.
   The solid body of the Earth has three main geospheres: the nucleus of the Earth, the intermediate cover and the earth-crust. The radius of the nucleus is about 3500 km. The intermediate cover fills the space from the nucleus' surface to the lower surface of the earth-crust and has the thickness of about 2900 km. The earth-crust, or the lithosphere, is the upper solid cover of the Earth with thickness 15 - 70 km; from above it is limited by the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The earth's crust has a stratified structure, various in different places. The uppermost layer is occupied by sedimentary cover (the stratisphere). It is interrupted, has the depth to 10 - 15 km and consists of sedimentary rocks, among which clays and argillaceous schist predominate. Sands and sandstone, limestone and dolomites constitute its smaller part.
   The formation of the stratisphere began in the ancient pre-Cambrian period and lasts until now. The total age of the earth's crust is defined as 3 - 3.5 bln. years, but the age of the most ancient, accessible for observation, pre-Cambrian geological formations rather exceed 2 bln. years. The sedimentary cover was formed as a result of the lengthy process of differentiation of the lithosphere's substance under the influence of tectonic moves, the solar energy and vital activity of organisms. This process was accompanied by a complex interchange of substances between the granite and basaltic covers of the Earth, from one side, and the atmosphere and the hydrosphere, from the other. The chemical composition of the stratisphere together with the salt composition of the ocean is close to the average composition of the earth's crust as a whole.
   During the geological history of the Earth natural alterations of the inner structure and consistency of the earth-crust, of the relief of its surface, of the character of outer and inner geological processes were going on. So, for instance, the rocks of the most ancient Archaen era everywhere are much metamorphosed (recrystallised), pierced by intrusions of magma and crumpled into folds. Along the entire surface of continents mountains arose repeatedly, which went to ruins later on. During proterozoa and after that the continents, while going down, were partly flooded with sea and, after getting up, again turned into dry land. Simultaneously powerful moves of the earth-crust went on in different places, as a result of which numerous mountain ranges were arising, later ruined. Contemporary inner geological processes reveal themselves:
   1) in slow raising and lowering of the earth's surface at the rate of several centimetres per year in mountainous areas, but the usual rate amounts to some millimetres per year;
   2) in abrupt moves of some parts of the earth-crust - earthquakes;
   3) in volcanic eruptions.
   As a result of the above geological processes and also under the permanent influence of the atmosphere (including the sun and cosmic radiation), the hydrosphere and the biosphere during two bln. years the formation of the principal layer of the lithosphere - the soil - was taking place.
   Its formation went on from friable rocks, that is from the fng. units of the sublevels D - F: clays, loam, sandy loam and sands, constituting the products of the weathering of magmatic, metamorphosed or dense sedimentary rocks, deposited at places of their origination or, more often, having undergone transfers and redeposits (often repeated) by fluid water or wind. The soil consists of the firm, liquid (the soil solution) and gaseous (the soil air) parts. In the firm part the principal mass share is usually occupied by the mineral part, represented by small (most of them are from 1 mm to tenth and hundredth parts of micron) particles of different minerals. The composition of soil is formed by the following chemical compounds (in decreasing order): SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, K2O, Na2O, MgO, CaO, CO2, Cl, SO4 and by many others. But the most valuable component of the soil is humus - the final result of the functional development of Matter along the organisational level G. The composition of humus is formed by different high-molecular acids, among which groups of gumming, ulmic and fulvo acids have the greatest importance. Chains of aromatic nuclei of two- and three-member phenols form the basis of complex molecules of gumming acids. Different functional groups are joined to them: carbocsilic, methocsilic, spirituous and others.
   All the numerous chemical compounds of the sublevel G, including also humus substances, constitute complex systemic formations, enclosing into its fnl. cells fng. units of all the foregoing sublevels from a to E. Each of these particles, in the form of a certain way of organised structures of Matter, bears at its organisational level different functional loads, that considerably differ from each other. However, as it was already at the previous stages of the Evolution of Matter, each stable systemic formation of the sublevel G at a certain moment becomes a fng. unit of the following organisational level - H (the biosphere). And as soon as the actual point of the invisible line of the tensor of the Evolution of Matter moved from the level G to the level H, immediately the level G remained out of bounds of the sphere of actual development of Matter and became, as also all the foregoing organisational levels, a supplier of functional half-finished products - fng. units of its sublevel - for the formation of functional systems of the level H.
   The humus horizon of the soil serves as a natural accumulator of these half-finished products, consisting mainly from its organic substance. Being the very upper layer of the soil and coming into direct contact with the atmosphere and partly with the hydrosphere, the humus horizon has relatively small thickness. It varies in different grounds from several centimetres to one, sometimes to 1.5 m. In areas of deserts, half-deserts, mountains, etc., the humus horizon is practically absent. But even at those places where it is sizeable, the content of humus in the upper part of the humus horizon ranges from tenth parts of a percent to 15 - 18%. Thus the formation, functioning and development of fnl. systems and fng. units of all following organisational levels of Matter depends directly on the quantitative composition of half-finished products being situated in the humus horizon - the accumulator. But as this accumulator for many millions of years has practically an invariable area (), it serves as one of the principal natural regulators of numbers of all living things on the Earth just in the same degree, as all living things on the Earth themselves in order to avoid the worst consequences should self-regulate its numbers in accordance with the resources of this stage of the systemic organisation of Matter.